Psychology

Instructions:

  Use one in-text citation using the book as a reference:Shiraev, E. B., & Levy, D. A. (2016). Cross-Cultural Psychology (6th Edition). Taylor & Francis. https://yuzu.vitalsource.com/books/9781134871384

1.Summarize the Chapter 11 Summary, found at the end of the chapter (250+ words).  Note:  For this and all chapter summaries, phrase your summary in your own words as much as possible without changing the meaning (I included the chapter summary you are summarizing for this question labeled “chapter summary”).

 2.Referring to the Chapter Summary, please create a 10-question test (mix it up between about 1/3 short answer, 1/3 multiple choice, and 1/3 True/False) that addresses whatever parts of the Chapter Summary you want the questions to address.  Make sure to include the correct answers to each question just below the question

 3. Referring to the Key Terms, please create an 8-question test (mix it up between about 1/3 short answer, 1/3 multiple choice, and 1/3 True/False) that addresses whatever Key Terms you want the questions to address.  Make sure to include the correct answers to each question just below the question (I included the key terms you will be using for this question at the end labeled “key terms”). 

4.Choose any section of the chapter, other than the Chapter Summary and Key Terms, and summarize it (250+ words).  You can pick any section, and you don't have to summarize the entire section if you don't want to, as long as the summary is 250+ words. Note:  For this, just like the chapter summaries, phrase your summary in your own words as much as possible without changing the meaning (I included the section of the chapter you will be summarizing for this question at the end labeled “Gender as a social construct”).

Chapter Summary

Personality is a stable set of behavioral and experiential characteristics of an individual. Psychologists are looking only at relatively stable patterns and enduring features of the individual’s behavior and experience.Research shows, with some exceptions, that individuals from Western countries are more likely to display a stronger internal locus of control than individuals from non-Western countries. However, the general pattern for locus of control across the groups, countries, and cultures studied was inconsistent.An important discussion of personality in a cross-cultural context comes from the studies of the autotelic personality.The concept of peak experiences, which is developed in the West, resembles other cultural teachings by focusing on the importance of other people and an individual’s consistent social engagements.Several key ideas about peak experiences found further developments in the studies of the autotelic personality. Authentic personality is associated with traits such as curiosity, purposeful behavior, and modesty. Autotelic personalities—compared to others—tend to seek and create situations in which they experience flow states.The concept of autotelic personality was developed and scientifically studied in the West. Yet it has many similarities with other views of personality developed in other parts of the world and many generations ago, including the teachings on the Four Noble Truths, which are central to the Buddhist tradition.During a relatively short history of cross-cultural psychology, researchers and practitioners frequently focused on the question about whether certain personality characteristics could be typical in citizens of particular countries but not of others.National character is a perceived set of predominant behavioral and psychological features and traits common in most people of a nation. Views of national character are enshrined in literature, embedded in various interpretations of history, disseminated through jokes, and perpetuated by travelers’ tales.How people view their own “national characters” is based on a large number of factors. Overall, various personality traits showed that national character stereotypes have only little basis in reality.The term “self” refers to the representation of one’s identity or the subject of experience. Psychologists generally accept that the self comes into being at the interface between the inner biological processes and the ecocultural context (see Chapter 1) to which the person belongs.Self-esteem reflects a person’s general subjective evaluation, both emotional and rational, of his or her own worth.Some individuals experience ethnic disidentification—detaching an individual’s self from the ethnic group with which he or she has been previously associated or is associated now.In the context of personality, the term “sex” refers to the anatomical and physiological characteristics or features of males and females, the two typically assigned sexes. Contemporary research supports the view that sex is a continuous variable.Religion for centuries has been a major source of knowledge and prescriptions about the behavior of men and women, what they were supposed to do and how they were supposed to be treated as members of society.Gender is a complex set of behavioral, cultural, or psychological features associated with an individual’s sex. Gender as a concept has a significant cultural component.Gender identity is an individual’s self-determination (or a complex self-reflection) as being male, female, intersex (between male and female), or neither.When an individual learns about or identifies with a particular gender, this process involves understanding, evaluating, and accepting particular patterns of behavior. They are called gender roles—prescriptions and expectations assigned to genders on the female–male continuum. These prescriptions and expectations are typically embedded in cultural norms and transmitted from one generation to the next.Contemporary gender studies is a multidisciplinary field dedicated to studying gender and a wide range of gender-related issues. Gender is commonly perceived as a continuum, and there are no absolute, invariable “male-ness,” or masculinity, and “female-ness,” or femininity, in individuals.Across countries and cultures, the views of a person’s sexual orientation were under significant influence of tradition.The evolution of views of sexual identity and sexual orientation is a powerful example of how cultural beliefs, science, legal rulings, and ideology have been evolving.Some individuals are sexually “fluid,” and sexual fluidity can be recognized as a kind of sexual orientation. These days, sexual fluidity is an individual’s identity feature that can be accepted or rejected by the society within which this individual lives.

 Key Terms

 Androcentrism: Placing males or the masculine point of view at the center of a theory or narrative.

Androgyny: A combination, a coexistence, a blend of both male and female behavioral characteristics, features, and reflections.

Autotelic Personality: A person who tends to be engaged in activities that are naturally rewarding and not necessarily associated with material goals such as money, fame, or high social status.

Ethnic Disidentification: Detaching an individual’s self from the ethnic group with which he or she has been previously associated or is associated now.

Femininity: Traditionally assigned to women, a general set of features correlated with beauty, emotionality, and nurture.

Feminism: The view that women do not have equal rights and opportunities with men and that global changes are needed to achieve social justice.

Gender: A complex set of behavioral, cultural, or psychological features associated with an individual’s sex.

Gender Identity: An individual’s self-determination (or a complex self-reflection) as being male, female, intersex (between male and female), or neither.

Gender Roles: Prescriptions and expectations assigned to genders on the female–male continuum.

Gender Studies: A multidisciplinary field dedicated to studying gender and a wide range of gender-related issues.

Intersex: A category is based on the features that are between distinctly male and female characteristics.

Locus of Control: The extent to which individuals believe they can control and affect events.

Masculinity: Traditionally assigned to men, a general set of features associated with physical strength, decisiveness, and assertiveness.

National Character: A perceived set of predominant behavioral and psychological features and traits common in most people of a nation.

Natural Dominance of Men: A general assumption about men’s physical and biological superiority over women.

 Peak Experiences: Periodic and profound episodes of happiness, optimism, inner harmony, and creativity. 

Personality: A stable set of behavioral and experiential characteristics of an individual.

Personality Traits: Distinguishable displays or patterns of behavior and experience.

Religious Identity: The sense of belonging to a religion and the importance of this group membership relevant to the individual’s sense of self.

Self: The representation of one’s identity or the subject of experience.

Self-Esteem: A person’s general subjective evaluation, both emotional and rational, of his or her own worth.

Sex: Anatomical and physiological characteristics or features of males and females, the two typically assigned sexes.

Transgender: The roles that do not fit into the traditionally assigned gender dichotomy.

 Gender as a Social Construct

Sex as a category is rooted in biological, physiological, and anatomical factors. Gender is a complex set of behavioral, cultural, or psychological features associated with an individual’s sex. Gender, as a concept, has a significant cultural component: It is the state of being male or female, determined by informally prescribed cultural norms (such as customs), the expectations about what a person should do as a member of a particular sex, as well as formal legal rules (the law) mandating or prohibiting particular actions. If gender is a social category, it can be viewed from two dimensions: the internal and external. The internal, or psychological, dimension refers to the degree of experiencing of being male or female. The external, or social, dimension refers to the roles that society assigns to each sex. These dimensions, of course, are interconnected and actively interact with each other.  Let’s look at the internal dimension first. Gender identity is an individual’s self-determination (or a complex self-reflection) of being male, female, intersex (between male and female), or neither. For example, consider androgyny—a combination, a coexistence, a blend of both male and female behavioral characteristics, features, and reflections. Studies show that a gender identity, for most of us, after we establish it, tends to remain stable. Yet it can change. Therefore, gender identity is best described as a process rather than a “product”: Gender identity can strengthen (when an individual feels stronger in his or her identity than before) or weaken. Although most children refer to self as “I am a boy” or “I am a girl” at a very early age, their understanding or acceptance of the meaning of these words is likely to develop over a significant period. They may never stop evolving: People constantly learn more about gender and gender identity. Gender identity may be rediscovered again. Why does it change or evolve? Many life circumstances influence the way we identify self, including physiological factors, our interactions with our parents growing up, our experiences with family members, our friendships, our travels—they all matter. Activities such as play or education, exposure to the media, and other life experiences affect our gender identity in many ways. Most individuals develop a specific gender identity that matches their biological sex assigned at birth. However, it is also possible that a person with an assigned sex (e.g., a young woman) feels conflicted about the assigned gender identity and roles and develops a different gender (e.g., a young boy). Some intersex individuals may be raised as a woman or a man but then identify with another gender or none later in life. Also, a strong, core gender identity, as well as a secondary one, can be developing over the core identity (UN for LGBT Equality, 2015).

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